Caribbean History 101, Professor Seenarine, April 16th 2000

Introduction

Caribbean women have had a long history of political contribution to their society. Their activism began with the early resistance and protest during enslavement and after abolition. Then working class women and middle class women continued their activities during the post slavery period for a better life socially and economically by being social activist and even entering representational politics.

However, despite their struggle, women were said to play mostly supporting roles, and the few that went against the norm and strive for leadership positions encountered obstacles which involved personal prosecution. Women were not successful politically until the late 20th century when a number of women have made significant contribution through this avenue. In the past, women s contributions to the shaping of Caribbean history has been deem almost inelevant by early historians (mostly men), but a number of females writers and historians have began to highlight the significant work of women in the British ruled Caribbean.

Resistance to Slavery

As early as 1500, captive women become active participants in  resistance to slavery. There are accounts of revolt during the middle passage. For example, an English slaver captain John Newton reports that ships which were under his command survived at least five revolts. One such revolt was aboard the "Thomas" in 1797. The women on board were released and let on deck to get exercise and eat, when they discovered that the container was unlocked. Consequently, they seized guns from this container and overpowered the crew. The men were then released and the ships eventually controlled by the captives. However it should be noted that they were eventually recaptured because of their inability to navigate the seas (Beckles 1989, p.155). Still this was an early indication of women’s unwillingness to accept their enslaved position.

Violent means of protest persisted among enslaved women on plantations where women were actively involved. In fact, women would resort to murder of persons who were Involved in authority. Because women had no way of protecting themselves from the inhumane and anti-social use of power from their captors such measures were needed as a form of self-defense. (Beckles, 1989, p.155) Enslaved women also used arson as a measure of revenge before they would run away from the plantation.

Enslaved women also used non-violent method to protest slavery. These methods were either to weaken slavery itself or to better their social and economic condition. Women would go to the sick houses regularly or take days off without permission. Similarly field women used a strategy known as labor withdrawal as a means of protest. This was interpreted as laziness by manager and since women outnumbered men on the plantation, If huge number of them refuse to work then productivity would decline (Beckles 1998: 158).

In addition, to labor withdrawal women played significant role in collective bargaining agreement. For example, enslaved women, in Barbados sought to negotiate for improved conditions and terms of labor (Beckles 1998: p158). Some of these conditions include extension of free time and request for whom should over see them. However these actions were usually punished. For example, the ‘lazy women’ were sold and of those who were not were placed in the stocks or in iron until they accepted the fact that they had to do hard labor (Beckles, 1989, P.158).

Maroonage was another method that slaves used to resist slavery. Many slaves of which include women ran away to the mountains and those who didn’t help others to do. Eventually small-populated societies were formed which owners had a difficult time eradicating. According to (Beckles, 1989), newspaper reports, plantation accounts and other historical data, record the history of women as maroons. In addition, these records show "the great deal of the life experience of women as slaves.., and show "the great deal of the life experience of women as slaves.., and illustrated the ingenuity and courage of in the face of an oppressive and brutal social system" (Beckles, 1989, P.165).

Resistance After Abolition

Post slavery era also brought with it more activisimn. Immediately after emancipation, women were advised by the missionaries to stay at home while their men work. However, few women could afford to do so and many looked for other ways of supporting their family away from the plantation. Consequently, this decision presented a problem to owners because before emancipation women dominated the working population. Therefore, if these women were either going to stay home to care for their families or work outside of the plantation then his productivity was likely to decrease. So planters resorted to extreme measures to coerce women back to the cane fields (Wilmot 1989).

For example, in Jamaica on a plantation called Golden Grove most women refused to return to cane field instead they would work on the provision grounds. However, the attorney instructed his client to impose new rents on cottages and the provision grounds. Furthermore, if women worked then, they had to produce three hog sheds of sugar each day, an amount that could only be met if women worked five days per week. If these productions were not met the he would cease all work on provision grounds and double the rent on cottages and provision grounds.

However, despite his bullying, women refusal to return to the estate unless certain terms were met. Similarly in another parish in Jamaica planters fried to coerce married women back to work by increasing rent. But again women refused and went on strike to show their dissatisfaction. Consequently, they did not return to work until they had negotiated new contracts part of which allowed for married women to work only if they wanted to (Wilmot, 1989, p. 280). Moreover, women in other parishes that did not have good provision grounds used their rights to choose between employers who offered better packages. (Wilmot, 989, p.280).

In addition to fighting against unfair labor practices women defended those who helped to protest their cause. In August of 1838 in Jamaica women were among those who threatened violent actions because they thought two ministers were going to be killed by planters. These men were trying to negotiate for better wages on their behalf. Many women participate m a gathering where they thought one of the ministers was going to be hanged brandishing cutlasses and sticks in his defense (Wilmot, 1989, p. 284). Also, when the other minister was being taken care of in the home of the inspector of police because he had fallen from his horse. Two hundred laborers gathered at the police’s house and chanted for his release. Furthennore, the story that he was killed spread to other properties and others took to the street, threatening to burn the houses down which belongs to the owners (Wilmot 1989, pg. 284).

Women were also key participants In the Morant Bay rebellion, one of the crucial political movements in the Caribbean even though their contribution received little recognition. In fact, most writers refer to the women, who were on the fringe of the crowd throwing stones at police as hooligans (Wilmot 1989 pg. 290) As one writer Wilmot put it, "the lack of invisibility of women’s participation does not really reflect an absence of information about them, rather their omission reveals the extent to which these infonnation was considered unimportant to the concerns of history ".(p. 290).

In fact, women like Rossana Finalyson, Sarah Johnson and Caroline Grant were prominent activists in the rebellion. Findlyson was noted as giving orders to her people. Also together with Sarah Johnson was instrumental in persuading men who fled from the scene to return to fight. Sarah was also involved in raiding of the police station for gun and other weapons (Sheppard 1999, P. 50). Clearly women were going to take a stand to protect their self-interest and fight against any injustices.

Resistance in the 20th Century

In the early 20th century, women continued their activism and protesting for and against issues, which were, important to them. Due to the great depression in the USA in the 1930’s, unemployment was high in the Caribbean region and those who were employed were paid low wages, with men making more than women (Shepard, 1997, pg.165). In addition, health and educational facilities were deplorable for the working class. As a result, a number of dots and strikes broke out as people showed their discontent, women were significant in those activities although there is not much reference of this by early historians (Shepard, 1995, P 165).

One of the earliest disturbances took place in Trinidad and Tobago in 1934 by sugar workers. These workers were protesting the prolonged unemployment. The protest was reported in the Port-of-Spain Gazette as being made up of mostly women and children and one that was difficult to control by police. These workers were demanding work and food (Reddock, 1989, P. 88). In fact, weeders and grass gang workers on the Esperana Estate stopped working because their demand for a decrease in the workload was not met. The labor disturbance report describes the strike as one that included the attack of an overseer and a manager with women urging on the men. However what’s interesting about this report and others on this disturbance is how the participation of women is delegated as insignificant. But according to Reddock (1989), weeding was ajob that was mostly done by women and the "weeders were central to the strike and struggle of 1934" (p.89).

Similarly in St. Vincent in 1938 disturbances were as a result of the increase in customs duties. One woman in particular identified as Brenda Bertamatt led protest in stoning of Kingston courthouse. One writer describe the riot as consisting of fifteen women armed with sticks and stones who were later joined by about two hundred men armed with stones, sledge hammers, cutlasses and knives (Reddock, 1989, pg. 90).

In Jamaica, in 1938 large number of working class women was also involved in strikes and disturbances. Woman writers attribute the report of these disturbances to the writing in the Jamaica Standard. Women were active in the waterfront strike on May 21st and expanded to the streets cleaners by May 23rd and then eventually the entire city. The Jamaica standard elaborated on the extent of participation of women. Factory workers and packers left their stalls and joined the strikes. According to the Reddock (1989). The Jamaica standard states women and girls joined the demonstration and tried to out shout the men for higher wages and better standard of living (Reddock, 1989, pg. 95).

Meanwhile as the strike spread, more women became involved as workers from the Biscuit Factory, the Jamaica Coconut Producers and the Leo Shirt Factory went on strike. Also, women in rural areas became active in this strike as they along with men marched with demonstrators while some domestic workers even filed suits against employers (Reddock, 1989, pg. 95).

Women in Trade Unions

The result of these disturbance was the formation of trade unions. Trade unions were formed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to represent workers' concern (Shepard, 199, pg. 166). Even though men were the primary leaders of these groups women were active in them as rank and file members. In fact, a number of women took the initiative and became founders themselves.

One such woman was Elma Francois; a Vicentian by birth who migrated to Trinidad. She was instrumental in the formation of three major unions in Trinidad. The seaman and waterfront workers union, Natural union of government and the federated workers and trade union. However, her strong political stance led to her being tried for sedition, But she was acquitted. Also, because most employers did not like her radical stance, she was actually forced to work as a self employed washerwoman (Reddock, 1989).

Lucy Stroder was also a founding member of a trade union in Grenada; the commercial and industrial workers union was formed as a competitor of a male run union. Stroder had specific ideas on how a union should be run. It had to be one where members contributed significantly to decision making and leader were accountable to members. (Shepard 1997: pg. 168).

Importantly, most unions were not formed to address women’s issues. However a few were formed specifically for this purpose which include the women’s worker trade union and the domestic workers trade union of Trinidad and Tobago. Some of the gender specific issues that these union address were discrimination of wages paid to men and women, long hours of female shop workers, absence of legislation to protect pregnant women and lack of safety in the workplace (Shepard, 1997, P.169). Like Elma Francois, many women were discriminated against as many lost their jobs in their attempt to rally workers and because of their activism (Shepard, 1997, P. 169).

Women in Politics

Caribbean women continued their struggle for greater autonomy through representational politics. Some middle class and working class women were determined to move from the social welfare role they play in voluntary and charitable organizations to become politically active and sit in seats of political power" (Shepard, 1997: pg. 170). As Caribbean women became aware of progress political women were making internationally they wanted to have the same opportunities as well. However, women did not have an easy time as men in attaining leadership position. Despite this, they continued played important role as campaigners and organizers.

Some of the obstacles that women faces in obtaining political power includes the problem of role conflict, economic factors, and lack of male support. Women sometimes experience conflict in deciding how entering politics will affect their family life. The fear of an attack on her character and her family’s. While other women fear the disapproval of husbands because of all the attention she would receive.

Secondly, economic factors affect women’s participation in politics. Because running for office is expensive. In fact women have lower occupational status they have less resources to find their campaign. Finally, lack of male support within their own party prevented women from participation and leadership positions in politics. Politics remains defined as a man's world. Most men within their own party are often reluctant to support a woman. As a result, few women have been able to attain political power in Caribbean.

Strill, there are a few exceptionsm for example, Elsa Barrows of Barbados, who helped to form the Democrats Labor Party. While in St. Vincent, Vilma Cox helped form the St. Vincent Labor Party, and in Dominica, Eugena Charles help formed the Dominican labor movement (Shepard, 1991).

Conclusion

Women of all races, class, enthnicities and time periods have contributed to the social and political struggle of British ruled Caribbean. Women were active protest, strike and even national elections. Throughout all these activities women sought to have a voice in gaining equality in labor rights, social justice and be a factor in determining how their society should be run. Their magnificent work has helped to pave an easier road for generations of women. Like men they participate in political activities, protests and national elections. Yet women have not been given their due for their sacrifice and accomplishment.

References

Beckles, H. (1989) Natural Rebels New Jersey: Rutgers University Press

Reddock, R. (1989) "Caribbean Women and The Struggle of the 1930’s." Caribbean Affairs, 1, 86-96

Senior, 0. (1991) Working Miracles. Barbados: University of the West Indies

Shepard V. A., Edu (1999) Women in Caribbean History. Kingston: Ian Randle, Oxford: James Curry, Princeton: Marcus Weiner

Wilmot, S. (1989) "Females of Abandoned Characters? Women an protect in Jamaica 1838-1865," in V. Shepard, B. Bereton & B. Bailey, (Eds.) Engendering History.

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